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Fossil fuel

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A fossil fuel[a] is a carbon compound- or hydrocarbon-containing material such as coal, oil, and natural gas,[2] formed naturally in the Earth's crust from the remains of prehistoric organisms (animals, plants and planktons), a process that occurs within geological formations. Reservoirs of such compound mixtures can be extracted and burned as a fuel for human consumption to lớn provide heat for direct use (such as for cooking or heating), to lớn power heat engines (such as steam or internal combustion engines) that can propel vehicles, or to lớn generate electricity via steam turbine generators.[3] Some fossil fuels are further refined into derivatives such as kerosene, gasoline and diesel.

The origin of fossil fuels is the anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms containing organic molecules created by photosynthetic carbon fixation.[4] The conversion from these materials to lớn high-carbon fossil fuels typically requires a geological process of millions of years.[5] Due to lớn the length of time it takes nature to lớn sườn them, fossil fuels are considered non-renewable resources.

In 2022, over 80% of primary energy consumption in the world and over 60% of its electricity was from fossil fuels.[6] The large-scale burning of fossil fuels causes serious environmental damage. Over 70% of the greenhouse gas emissions due to lớn human activity in 2022 was CO2 from burning them.[7] Natural processes on Earth, mostly absorption by the ocean, can remove only a small part of this CO2. Therefore, there is a net increase of many billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year.[8] Although methane leaks are significant,[9]: 52  the burning of fossil fuels is the main source of greenhouse gas emissions causing global warming and ocean acidification. Additionally, most air pollution deaths are due to lớn fossil fuel particulates and noxious gases. It is estimated that this costs over 3% of the global gross domestic product[10] and that fossil fuel phase-out will save millions of lives each year.[11][12]

Recognition of the climate crisis, pollution and other negative impacts caused by fossil fuels has led to lớn a widespread policy transition and activist movement focused on ending their use in favor of sustainable energy.[13] Because the fossil-fuel industry is so sánh heavily integrated in the global economy and heavily subsidized,[14] this transition is expected to lớn have significant economic impacts.[15] Many stakeholders argue that this change needs to lớn be a just transition[16] and create policy that addresses the societal burdens created by the stranded assets of the fossil fuel industry.[17][18]

International policy, in the sườn of United Nations sustainable development goals for affordable and clean energy and climate action, as well as the Paris Climate Agreement, is designed to lớn facilitate this transition at a global level. In 2021, the International Energy Agency concluded that no new fossil fuel extraction projects could be opened if the global economy and society wants to lớn avoid the worst impacts of climate change and meet international goals for climate change mitigation.[19]

Origin

Since oil fields are located only at certain places on Earth,[20] only some countries are oil-independent; the other countries depend on the oil-production capacities of these countries.

The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to lớn heat and pressure in Earth's crust over millions of years was first introduced by Andreas Libavius "in his 1597 Alchemia [Alchymia]" and later by Mikhail Lomonosov "as early as 1757 and certainly by 1763".[21] The first use of the term "fossil fuel" occurs in the work of the German chemist Caspar Neumann, in English translation in 1759.[22] The Oxford English Dictionary notes that in the phrase "fossil fuel" the adjective "fossil" means "[o]btained by digging; found buried in the earth", which dates to lớn at least 1652,[23] before the English noun "fossil" came to lớn refer primarily to lớn long-dead organisms in the early 18th century.[24]

Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large quantities under anoxic conditions millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural gas as a result of anaerobic decomposition. Over geological time this organic matter, mixed with mud, became buried under further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting high temperature and pressure caused the organic matter to lớn chemically alter, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in oil shales, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis. Despite these heat-driven transformations, the energy released in combustion is still photosynthetic in origin.[4]

Terrestrial plants tended to lớn sườn coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to lớn the Carboniferous period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also sườn type III kerogen, a source of natural gas. Although fossil fuels are continually formed by natural processes, they are classified as non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to lớn sườn and known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than vãn new ones are generated.[25][26]

Importance

Net income of the global oil and gas industry reached a record US$4 trillion in 2022.[27]
After recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic, energy company profits increased with greater revenues from higher fuel prices resulting from the Russian invasion of Ukraine, falling debt levels, tax write-downs of projects shut down in Russia, and backing off from earlier plans to lớn reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[28] Record profits sparked public calls for windfall taxes.[28]

Fossil fuels have been important to lớn human development because they can be readily burned in the open atmosphere to lớn produce heat. The use of peat as a domestic fuel predates recorded history. Coal was burned in some early furnaces for the smelting of metal ore, while semi-solid hydrocarbons from oil seeps were also burned in ancient times,[29] they were mostly used for waterproofing and embalming.[30]

Commercial exploitation of petroleum began in the 19th century.[31]

Natural gas, once flared-off as an unneeded byproduct of petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable resource.[32] Natural gas deposits are also the main source of helium.

Heavy crude oil, which is much more viscous than vãn conventional crude oil, and oil sands, where bitumen is found mixed with sand and clay, began to lớn become more important as sources of fossil fuel in the early 2000s.[33] Oil shale and similar materials are sedimentary rocks containing kerogen, a complex mixture of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which yield synthetic crude oil when heated (pyrolyzed). With additional processing, they can be employed instead of other established fossil fuels. During the 2010s and 2020s there was disinvestment from exploitation of such resources due to lớn their high carbon cost relative to lớn more easily-processed reserves.[34]

Prior to lớn the latter half of the 18th century, windmills and watermills provided the energy needed for work such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping water, while burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The wide-scale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, in steam engines enabled the Industrial Revolution. At the same time, gas lights using natural gas or coal gas were coming into wide use. The invention of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the demand for gasoline and diesel oil, both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation, railways and aircraft, also require fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil fuels is in generating electricity and as feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Tar, a leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in the construction of roads.

The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the sườn of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon-fueled irrigation.[35][36] The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth; it has been estimated that almost half of the Earth's population are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.[37] According to lớn head of a fertilizers commodity price agency, "50% of the world's food relies on fertilisers."[38]

Environmental effects

The Global Carbon Project shows how additions to lớn CO2 since 1880 have been caused by different sources ramping up one after another.

The burning of fossil fuels has a number of negative externalities – harmful environmental impacts where the effects extend beyond the people using the fuel. These effects vary between different fuels. All fossil fuels release CO2 when they burn, thus accelerating climate change. Burning coal, and to lớn a lesser extent oil and its derivatives, contributes to lớn atmospheric particulate matter, smog and acid rain.[39][40][41] Air pollution from fossil fuels in 2018 has been estimated to lớn cost US$2.9 trillion, or 3.3% of the global gross domestic product (GDP).[10]

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the last 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in xanh rì.[42] Directly observational data is in red, with all data showing a 5 year moving average.[43]

Climate change is largely driven by the release of greenhouse gases lượt thích CO2, and the burning of fossil fuels is the main source of these emissions. In most parts of the world climate change is negatively impacting ecosystems.[44] This includes contributing to lớn the extinction of species and reducing people's ability to lớn produce food, thus adding to lớn the problem of world hunger. Continued rises in global temperatures will lead to lớn further adverse effects on both ecosystems and people; the World Health Organization has said that climate change is the greatest threat to lớn human health in the 21st century.[45][46]

Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric and nitric acids, which fall to lớn Earth as acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the built environment. Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate.

Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium, which are released into the atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000 tonnes of thorium and 5,000 tonnes of uranium were released worldwide from burning coal.[47] It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island accident.[48]

Burning coal also generates large amounts of bottom ash and fly ash. These materials are used in a wide variety of applications (see Fly ash reuse), utilizing, for example,[clarification needed] about 40% of the United States production.[49]

In addition to lớn the effects that result from burning, the harvesting, processing, and distribution of fossil fuels also have environmental effects. Coal mining methods, particularly mountaintop removal and strip mining, have negative environmental impacts, and offshore oil drilling poses a hazard to lớn aquatic organisms. Fossil fuel wells can contribute to lớn methane release via fugitive gas emissions. Oil refineries also have negative environmental impacts, including air and water pollution. Coal is sometimes transported by diesel-powered locomotives, while crude oil is typically transported by tanker ships, requiring the combustion of additional fossil fuels.

A variety of mitigating efforts have arisen to lớn counter the negative effects of fossil fuels. This includes a movement to lớn use alternative energy sources, such as renewable energy. Environmental regulation uses a variety of approaches to lớn limit these emissions; for example, rules against releasing waste products lượt thích fly ash into the atmosphere.[41]

In December 2020, the United Nations released a report saying that despite the need to lớn reduce greenhouse emissions, various governments are "doubling down" on fossil fuels, in some cases diverting over 50% of their COVID-19 recovery stimulus funding to lớn fossil fuel production rather than vãn to lớn alternative energy. The UN secretary general António Guterres declared that "Humanity is waging war on nature. This is suicidal. Nature always strikes back – and it is already doing so sánh with growing force and fury." He also claimed there is still cause for hope, anticipating the US plan to lớn join other large emitters lượt thích Đài Loan Trung Quốc and the EU in adopting targets to lớn reach net zero emissions by 2050.[50][51][52]

Inflation effects

Fossilflation is a term that describes the impact of fossil fuels on inflation.[53][54]

According to lớn Vox in August 2022, "Economists have pointed to lớn energy prices as the main reason for high inflation," noting that "energy prices indirectly affect virtually every part of the economy".[53] Sectors that raise prices significantly as a result of higher fossil fuel prices include transportation, food, and shipping.[53]

History

Mark Zandi of Moody's says that fossil fuel prices have driven every big episode of inflation since WWII.[53]

The economic impact of the Russian Invasion of Ukraine in 2022 was a major recent example of fossil fuels causing inflation.[54] Some economists, including Isabel Schnabel, believe that dependence on fossil fuels is the main driver of the 2021-2022 inflation spike.[53][54]

Efforts to lớn combat fossilflation

Gernot Wagner argues that commodities are undesirable energy sources because they are susceptible to lớn volatile price swings that technologies lượt thích renewable energy are not. He also argues that technologies improve and get relatively cheaper over time.[53][55] Coming out of the COVID-19 pandemic, some argued for the possibility of a base effect phenomenon due to lớn cheaper than vãn normal prices, such as for oil, at the onset of the pandemic, followed by above-average prices which exacerbated the perceived inflation.[56][57]

Inflation Reduction Act

While not expected to lớn provide much short-term relief, the Inflation Reduction Act seeks to lớn make the United States less dependent on fossil fuels and their ability to lớn cause inflation in the economy.[53][58][55] Moody's estimates that by 2030, the bill could reduce the typical American household's spending on energy by more than vãn $300 each year, in 2022 dollars.[53]

Illness and deaths

Deaths caused as a result of fossil fuel use (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of renewable energy (rectangles barely visible in chart).[59]

Environmental pollution from fossil fuels impacts humans because particulates and other air pollution from fossil fuel combustion may cause illness and death when inhaled. These health effects include premature death, acute respiratory illness, aggravated asthma, chronic bronchitis and decreased lung function. The poor, undernourished, very young and very old, and people with preexisting respiratory disease and other ill health are more at risk.[60] Global air pollution deaths due to lớn fossil fuels have been estimated at over 8 million people (2018, nearly 1 in 5 deaths worldwide)[61] at 10.2 million (2019),[62] and 5.13 million excess deaths from ambient air pollution from fossil fuel use (2023).[63]

While all energy sources inherently have adverse effects, the data show that fossil fuels cause the highest levels of greenhouse gas emissions and are the most dangerous for human health. In contrast, modern renewable energy sources appear to lớn be safer for human health and cleaner. The death rates from accidents and air pollution in the EU are as follows per terawatt-hour (TWh):

Energy source Nos. of deaths
per TWh		 Greenhouse gas
emissions
(thousand tonnes/TWh)
Coal 24.6 820
Oil 18.4 720
Natural gas 2.8 490
Biomass 4.6 78–230
Hydropower 0.02 34
Nuclear energy 0.07 3
Wind 0.04 4
Solar 0.02 5

[64] As the data shows, coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass cause higher death rates and higher levels of greenhouse gas emissions than vãn hydropower, nuclear energy, wind, and solar power. Scientists propose that 1.8 million lives have been saved by replacing fossil fuel sources with nuclear power.[65]

Phase-out

Bloomberg NEF reported that in 2022, global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time.[66]

Just transition

This article needs to lớn be updated. The reason given is: Needs to lớn incorporate developments in international law and climate law which now recognise just transition. Please help update this article to lớn reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2024)

Just transition is a framework developed by the trade union movement[67] to lớn encompass a range of social interventions needed to lớn secure workers' rights and livelihoods when economies are shifting to lớn sustainable production, primarily combating climate change and protecting biodiversity. In Europe, advocates for a just transition want to lớn unite social and climate justice, for example, for coal workers in coal-dependent developing regions who lack employment opportunities beyond coal.[68]

Divestment

As of 2021, 1,300 institutions possessing US$14.6 trillion have divested from the fossil fuel industry.[69]

Fossil fuel divestment or fossil fuel divestment and investment in climate solutions is an attempt to lớn reduce climate change by exerting social, political, and economic pressure for the institutional divestment of assets including stocks, bonds, and other financial instruments connected to lớn companies involved in extracting fossil fuels.[70]

Fossil fuel divestment campaigns emerged on college and university campuses in the United States in 2011 with students urging their administrations to lớn turn endowment investments in the fossil fuel industry into investments in clean energy and communities most impacted by climate change.[71] In 2012, Unity College in Maine became the first institution of higher learning to lớn divest[72] its endowment from fossil fuels.

By năm ngoái, fossil fuel divestment was reportedly the fastest growing divestment movement in history.[73] As of July 2023, more than vãn 1593 institutions with assets totalling more than vãn $40.5 trillion in assets worldwide had begun or committed some sườn of divestment of fossil fuels.[74]

Divesters cite several reasons for their decisions. To some, it is a means of aligning investments with core values; to lớn others, it is a tactic for combatting the fossil fuel industry; to lớn others, it is a way to lớn protect portfolios from climate-related financial risk.[75] Financial research suggests that, in the longer term, fossil fuel divestment has positively impacted investors' returns.[76][77]

Industrial sector

In 2019, Saudi Aramco was listed and it reached a US$2 trillion valuation on its second day of trading,[78] after the world's largest initial public offering.[79]

Subsidies

Fossil-fuel subsidies per capita, 2019. Fossil-fuel pre-tax subsidies per capita are measured in constant US dollars.

Fossil fuel subsidies are energy subsidies on fossil fuels. They may be tax breaks on consumption, such as a lower sales tax on natural gas for residential heating; or subsidies on production, such as tax breaks on exploration for oil. Or they may be không tính tiền or cheap negative externalities; such as air pollution or climate change due to lớn burning gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. Some fossil fuel subsidies are via electricity generation, such as subsidies for coal-fired power stations.

Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would reduce the health risks of air pollution,[80] and would greatly reduce global carbon emissions thus helping to lớn limit climate change.[81] As of 2021, policy researchers estimate that substantially more money is spent on fossil fuel subsidies than vãn on environmentally harmful agricultural subsidies or environmentally harmful water subsidies.[82] The International Energy Agency says: "High fossil fuel prices hit the poor hardest, but subsidies are rarely well-targeted to lớn protect vulnerable groups and tend to lớn benefit better-off segments of the population."[83]

Despite the G20 countries having pledged to lớn phase-out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies,[84] as of 2023 they continue because of voter demand,[85][86] or for energy security.[87] Global fossil fuel consumption subsidies in 2022 have been estimated at one trillion dollars;[83] although they vary each year depending on oil prices, they are consistently hundreds of billions of dollars.[88]

Lobbying activities

The fossil fuels lobby includes paid representatives of corporations involved in the fossil fuel industry (oil, gas, coal), as well as related industries lượt thích chemicals, plastics, aviation and other transportation.[89] Because of their wealth and the importance of energy, transport and chemical industries to lớn local, national and international economies, these lobbies have the capacity and money to lớn attempt to lớn have outsized influence on governmental policy. In particular, the lobbies have been known to lớn obstruct policy related to lớn environmental protection, environmental health and climate action.[90]

Lobbies are active in most fossil-fuel intensive economies with democratic governance, with reporting on the lobbies most prominent in Canada, nước Australia, the United States and Europe, however the lobbies are present in many parts of the world. Big Oil companies such as ExxonMobil, Shell, BP, TotalEnergies, Chevron Corporation, and ConocoPhillips are among the largest corporations associated with the fossil fuels lobby.[91] The American Petroleum Institute is a powerful industry lobbyist for Big Oil with significant influence in Washington, D.C.[92][93][94] In nước Australia, Australian Energy Producers, formerly known as the Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association (APPEA), has significant influence in Canberra and helps to lớn maintain favorable policy settings for Oil and Gas.[95]

The presence of major fossil fuel companies and national oil companies at global forums for decision making, lượt thích the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,[96] Paris Climate Agreement negotiations,[96] and United Nations Climate Change conferences has been criticised.[97] The lobby is known for exploiting international crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic,[98] or the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,[99][100] to lớn try to lớn roll back existing regulations or justify new fossil fuel development.[98][99] Lobbyists try to lớn retain fossil fuel subsidies.[101]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The term has been considered a misnomer because it does not actually originate from fossils, but from organic matter.[1]

References

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Further reading